With a universe of plant life in tropical America that some botanists believe conservatively numbers over a hundred thousand species, there are hundreds of plants that are used in that part of the world for medicinal purposes. The aim of this book is to present description, facts, history, and medical knowledge for more than sixty of the most important species. Winnowing that list down from such a large universe proved to be a challenge. Aficionados may ask why a favorite plant—say, one that is popular in a particular area of Belize, Chile, or Mexico—was not included. The question is a fair one. In one sense, the answer is very simple: Space allows only a certain number of the plants to be featured.
Still, a selection had to be made. In deciding which plants made the cut, a number of sources were consulted. Some medical journals actually listed common herbal and plant remedies used by Hispanics as a result of surveys done among immigrant populations around the United States. Botanica owners are also a good source of what plants are popular, as are herb vendors and farmers in Central America. Botanists, particularly those who travel to Latin America to gain firsthand knowledge of traditional medicines, and curanderos, who use plants in their healing practices, also have favorite remedies. Some plants, such as chamomile and aloe vera, are easy picks because they are so widely used by the general population. In other cases, as with jaborandi, which is not readily available to the public, its inclusion is based on the fact that one of its components, pilocarpine, has made a significant contribution to human medical knowledge. In the case of cinchona bark, it is easily purchased, but it is also blessed with a history that is especially interesting.
In the pages that follow, sixty-three key medicinal plants are discussed in depth, with nine descriptive entries for each species. After the Latin and common names are spelled out, each entry contains descriptive and historical information, mostly about the traditional medical uses for which the plants are noted. There is also information about the availability of the plant materials in the United States and, where available, about recommended dosages. Contraindications, medical precautions, and medical research information are also described.
Some of the headings in the sections about each plant are worth explaining in more detail because there are important caveats and background information that will give the reader a more complete understanding of some of the botanical and medical concepts involved.
Description: Physical characteristics of the plants, some quite unique, are detailed to give the reader a sense of how the plant looks in nature. The plants span the range from tall trees such as Cinnamomum camphora, the source of camphor, which reach heights of over a hundred feet in the jungles of the Amazon River basin, to herbs such as basil, which barely top a foot in height. Some produce fragrant flowers, while others are noted for more disagreeable aromas. A few, such as papaya, produce fruits that are staples, while other fruits have toxic seeds.
A number of botanical works were consulted to assemble the descriptions, but three publications in particular were useful as well in describing plant habitats. They are Julia F. Morton's The Atlas of Medicinal Plants of Middle America: Bahamas to Yucatan, James Duke's CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs, and Rosita Arvigo and Michael Balick's Rainforest Remedies: One Hundred Healing Herbs of Belize. These books and many more sources are listed in the bibliography. The Raintree Nutrition, Inc., Web site, maintained by author Leslie Taylor, was also helpful.
Traditional uses: These are compilations of medicinal uses made of the various plants in folk medicine practices over long periods of time, sometimes stretching back centuries to the times of the ancient Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas, as well as Romans, Greeks, Chinese, and Indo-Pakistanis. The list of traditional uses has been compiled from a review of published accounts, often derived from the experiences of healers, as well as a vast array of historical and botanical data. One Internet site that proved particularly helpful is that maintained by the United States Department of Agriculture. The agency's Ethnobotany Database, developed by Stephen M. Beckstrom-Steinberg, James A. Duke, and K. K. Wain, is accessible at the Internet address http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/. The site consists of records on eighty thousand plants used around the world. Another Internet site that contains useful information about rain forest medicinal plants is one maintained by Raintree Nutrition, Inc., and Ms. Taylor. The site address is www.rain-tree.com.
At the end of this chapter and just before the descriptive listings, a list of maladies and medical conditions can be found. Along with each condition is listed an array of plants traditionally used to treat the illness. However, the reader should bear in mind that the listing of traditional medicinal uses of various plants in this book is not an endorsement of or recommendation for their use. Nor is any attempt made to diagnose any disease. It is said repeatedly in this book— and it is worth saying again—that a decision to use any botanical substance should be made only after consultation with a doctor.
Sometimes the traditional uses are described in medical terms. To keep the reader from having to reach for a medical dictionary, here is a short glossary of relevant terms that appear often:
1. Abortifacient: Substance that has the ability to induce an abortion
2. Analgesic: Substance that has the ability to reduce pain
3. Antibacterial: Substance that has the ability to cripple the growth of bacteria
4. Anti-inflammatory: Substance that has the ability to stop inflammation
5. Antinociceptive: Substance that has the ability to reduce sensitivity to painful stimuli or has an analgesic effect
6. Astringent: Substance that has the ability to constrict tissue or control bleeding
7. Catarrh: Condition of excessive secretions from an inflamed mucous membrane
8. Cholalogue: Substance that stimulates the flow of bile from the liver into the intestines
9. Choleretic: Substance that stimulates the liver to increase production of bile
10. Demulcent: Substance that soothes and stops irritation of mucous membranes
11. Diuretic: Substance that increases urinary flow
12. Emmenagogue: Substance that causes the onset of the menstrual period
13. Expectorant: Substance that loosens mucus in the throat or lungs
14. Hypoglycemic: Having to do with lowering blood sugar levels
15. Laxative: Substance that causes bowel movement
16. Purgative: Substance that has the ability to flush out the bowels
17. Rheumatism: Painful inflammation of muscle or joint
18. Rubefacient: Substance used to cause irritation to skin
19. Stomachic: Substance that promotes functional
activity of the stomach, improving appetite and digestion
Availability and dosage: In the United States, some of the plants listed in this book can be found in supermarkets or botanicas as fresh vegetables and fruit. Others can be found in powdered or capsule forms in health food stores. With the development of the Internet and the steady growth in the market for herbal substances, many of the botanical materials listed, particularly some of the products native to the Amazon area, can be purchased online.
Some of the online providers of botanical materials for traditional medicine include:
Rain-Tree.com: http://www.rain-tree.com
Mothernature.com http://www.mothernature.com
More.com: http://www.more.com
Allherb.com: http://www.allherb.com
Information about dosages for the medicinal plant substances varies widely depending on the herbalist consulted or the company marketing the product. For instance, one supplier recommends that the herb sarsaparilla be taken at a daily dosage of 2,490 mg in capsule form; another recommends 2,550 mg; a third recommends up to 9,000 mg daily. Liquid extracts of some herbs come with dosages expressed in numbers of drops. So, setting a dose is at best an inexact process and a course that is prudently navigated with the help of a physician or other qualified medical professional, with some attention paid to the manufacturer's label. Where there does not appear to be an established dosage, this book will note that dosages vary. It should also be kept in mind that growing conditions and climate may affect the chemical composition and medicinal qualities of a plant. The result is that different batches of the same herb may be of different quality. Quality control at the manufacturing level may also affect the final herbal product, and it is not unheard of for unscrupulous distributors to market a product as a particular herb when in fact it is not. Others may sell an adulterated product. This means that a consumer has to take the time to learn about the reliability of a distributor or manufacturer.
Traditional plant medicines and herbal remedies can be consumed in a number of ways, and the method of preparation will be dictated by the plant substance used. Herbal teas can be prepared from leaves or from pieces of bark, stem, or root. The process is relatively simple and involves steeping the materials in boiling or very hot water. Some herbal products are sold in convenient tea bag form. The listings in this book detail some ranges of doses found for teas in a review of herbal literature.
In addition, herbal substances, either in powdered form or extracts, are marketed in capsule form by a number of companies. They can be purchased by mail order or at health food stores. A few of the more well known ones, such as cat's claw or pau d'arco, can be purchased at supermarkets.
Other liquid forms in which herbal substances are consumed are called infusions, tinctures, or decoctions. Infusions, also made from dried herbs, are not tea, writes author Michael Castleman in his book The Healing Herbs: The Ultimate Guide. "Some herbalists use the terms interchangeably but the two are quite different," says Castleman. "Infusions are prepared like teas but they are steeped longer so they become considerably stronger." Tinctures are made by soaking a portion of the plant—which part depends on the particular traditional formula—in alcohol for up to two weeks. Often the plant parts are finely chopped, and the container is supposed to be shaken regularly. The resulting tincture is then used in solution or sometimes applied externally, depending on the medicinal plant. Decoctions are similar to infusions and are made by soaking crushed or finely chopped root, twig, or bark in boiling water and allowing it to simmer for up to twenty minutes. The mixture is then strained and the fluid is consumed by drinking.
Essential oils of some herbal plants are also available and are extracted by commercial distillation processes that are beyond the means of most consumers. However, a number of essential oils are available commercially from Internet or mail-order sites.
The Complete German Commission E Monograms: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines, which is published in the United States in collaboration with the American Botanical Council, lists recommended doses for many traditional herbal remedies, and they are sometimes referred to in this book. The commission is empowered by law to review herbal drugs and medicinal plants. The use of plants as medicine has been an accepted practice in Europe for many years (comprising an estimated 30 percent of all drugs sold in Germany, for instance), and the commission's collection of 380 monographs on herbal remedies is a logical outcome of such deep interest. The vast majority of the herbals are listed as approved, but a number are labeled as not approved, among them sarsaparilla. (One reviewer has cautioned that the work of Commission E is "not the final source" and notes that there is a lack of literature references and a failure to note possible fatal reactions to some plants.)
Contraindications: Not all drugs are appropriate for all people. This holds true for medicinal plants. Where research has uncovered possible negative interactions between certain physical conditions or sensitivities in a person and an herbal remedy, they are noted in this section.
Special precautions: Though many times medicinal plants may be used to treat illness without problems, there are instances where they have harmed those taking them, sometimes fatally. Overuse of plant substances has also been known to cause problems. This heading for each plant deals with special concerns noted from the research about toxicity, safety, and possible adverse reactions, particularly interactions with other drugs.
As noted earlier, plants contain numerous chemicals. Each substance, either alone or in conjunction with others, may cause allergic reactions or more severe symptoms of toxicity such as nausea, diarrhea, headaches, skin eruptions, and itching. Some dramatic examples include the cases of two patients, one in California and one in Texas, who developed cases of acute toxic hepatitis from ingesting herbal supplements from the leaves of the creosote bush, known as chaparral, according to the Centers for Disease Control. (Chaparral is a plant often mentioned as being used medicinally in the Mexican community.) In New Jersey in 1985, firefighters responding to an ambulance call of two people with severe itching themselves became stricken with the same symptoms and had to be treated after coming in contact with "voodoo beans" from the plant Mucuna pruriens, which grows in the Caribbean.
Mishandling and overuse of the substances may have been a factor in each of those episodes, but the cases still serve to underscore how carefully medicinal plants have to be treated. Botanists and doctors also know that the ingestion of some plants or plant substances such as eucalyptus oil, comfrey, rue, and the essential oil of wormwood can kill. Where research has found reasons for avoiding a medicinal plant or to be cautious in its use, that information has been included.
Special mention is also made of the fact that both the experience of indigenous people in Latin America and numerous studies have shown that some plants can be abortifacients or cause menstruation. As a result, medicinal plants with those characteristics are listed so that pregnant women know which are to be avoided. A number of herbalists also have stated that pregnant and breastfeeding women, as well as children under the age of two, should not take medicinal quantities of any herbs or healing plants.
Medical research: While there may not be a great many human clinical trials of medicinal plants, scientists nevertheless have been active in probing the efficacy of plants as medicine in a variety of other experiments. The sections on medical research are aimed at encapsulating some of the findings of various studies that have focused on the usefulness of the plants as medicine and also on their toxicity. In cases where research has focused only on the chemical properties of the plants or is not available in research libraries or over the Internet, the entry will contain the notation "None noted."
There is one final important point to make. Readers using this book to further study Hispanic medicinal plants should be aware that medical research is a dynamic field, with constant changes and new findings. The research for this book was completed in late 1999, and it is always possible that in succeeding years new findings will emerge that may bring a different perspective on the efficacy and safety of the Hispanic traditional medicines listed here. For that reason, it .is wise for anyone seriously considering using these plant substances to consult a physician or other medical expert for the most up-to-date information.
Traditional Hispanic Remedies and Their Historical Medical Uses
ANTI-INFLAMMATORY | Embauba |
Gumbo-limbo | Erva tostao |
Iporuru | Periwinkle |
Manaca | Witch hazel |
Pau d'arco | |
Picao preto | ASTRINGENT |
Embauba | |
ARTHRITIS | Iporuru |
Cat's claw | Quinine bark |
Chuchuhuasha | Rhatany |
Dragon's blood | Sage |
Pau d'arco | Witch hazel |
ASTHMA | BRONCHITIS |
Aloe vera | Contribo |
Amor seco | Eucalyptus |
Camphor | |
Casca-de-anta | CATARRH |
Chamomile | Anise |
Balsam of Tolu | Pedra hume caa |
Contribo | Wormwood |
Eucalyptus | |
diuretic | |
common cold | Annatto |
Camphor | Boldo |
Contribo | Canafistula |
Eucalyptus | Châ de bugre |
Gumbo-limbo | Erva tostâo |
Kalallo bush | Hierba del cancer |
Mozote | Picao preto |
Oregano | Sarsaparilla |
colic (see gastro- | expectorant |
intestinal problems) | Avenca |
Erva tostao | |
constipation | Thyme |
Copaiba | |
Guajava | gastrointestinal |
problems | |
diarrhea | Anise |
Amargo | Basil |
Amor seco | Boldo |
Cajueiro | Casca-de-anta |
Chuchuhuasha | . Contribo |
Dragon's blood | Eucalyptus |
Gravida | Ginger |
Guava | Graviola |
Iporuru | Guava |
Jacote | Hortela (peppermint) |
Mozote | Jacote |
Mugwort | Jatoba |
Macela | Basil |
Mugwort | Chuchuhuasha |
Papaya | Macela |
Picao preto | Mugwort |
Rosemary | Rue |
Sage | |
glaucoma | |
Jaborandi | muscle aches |
Camphor | |
herpes | Sour cane |
Dragon's blood | |
oral health | |
impotence | Rhatany |
Muira puama | Rue |
Sage | |
indigestion (see | |
gastrointestinal | prostate health |
problems) | Nettle |
insomnia | rheumatism |
Chamomile | Boldo |
Maracuja | Cat's claw |
Chuchuhuasha | |
liver problems | Jatoba |
Alcachofra (artichoke) | Manaca |
Wormwood | Pau d'arco |
Sarsaparilla | |
menstrual problems | Sour cane |
(includes late | |
periods or irregular | skin care |
flow) | Aloe vera |
Avenca | Arrowroot |
Espinheira santa | Espinheira santa |
Guajava | Guava |
Gumbo-limbo | Macela |
Pau d'arco | Quinine bark |
Rosemary | |
stomachache (simple) | |
Amargo | wounds (simple) |
Annatto | Aloe vera |
Basil | Dragon's blood |
Boldo | Hortela (peppermint) |
Carqueja | Thyme |
Casca-de-anta | Witch hazel |
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