Tuesday, June 23, 2009

Herbs: Wormwood

Wormwood

scientific name: Artemisia absinthium

other common names: Artemisia, absinthe, ajenjo, estafiate

growing areas: Native to Europe; grows in the eastern United States

physical description: Wormwood is a perennial that has grayish-green stems. It can grow to a height of 4 feet, and its leaves, which are in blunt segments, have silvery hairs on both sides and resembleieathers.

traditional uses: Beginning/in the late eighteenth century, wormwood was used to give a popular liqueur called absinthe its bitter flavor. But within that alcoholic mix lurked a great danger. Thujone, a volatile oil within the plant, is believed to have a narcotic effect and is reported to have been responsible for hallucinations, psychosis, and possible brain damage, a syndrome labeled "absinthism." The great painter Vincent van Gogh was reported to have been a habitual user of absinthe, and experts believe the heavy use of yellow in his art may have resulted from thujone-caused brain damage. After much controversy, the drink was banned in France in the early twentieth century.

Herbalists report that wormwood is useful for expelling intestinal worms and stimulating the gastrointestinal tract and uterus. It is also reported to work as an anti-inflammatory. It is a Hispanic folk remedy for diarrhea, arthritis, gout, and late menstrual periods. In one survey of Mexicans and Mexican-Americans it was found to be one of the top ten herbal remedies used in households. In Central America it is used" to treat

Herbs: Witch Hazel

Witch Hazel

scientific name: Hamamelis virginiana

other common names: Agua maravilla, winter bloom, spotted alder

growing areas: Native to the eastern United States

physical description: A perennial shrub that sheds its leaves in the fall, Hamamelis virginiana sends up a number of twisting stems that end in branches containing oval leaves. The plant's seed pods burst open with an audible popping sound and propel two black seeds several yards. The plant produces yellow flowers.

traditional uses: Witch hazel is the extract prepared from the twigs of Hamamelis virginiana through a distillation process. It was used by Native Americans before the colonists arrived, and the settlers soon learned of witch hazel's astringent qualities. The name witch hazel is thought to derive from either the use of the plant's wood to make brooms or else the popping sound made by the seed pods, perhaps thought to be a hint of some occult power. In any case, a decoction of the plant became widely used as an astringent and antiseptic in the United States during the nineteenth century. It was then that controversy erupted following the commercial use of distillation to make extracts of witch hazel. According to author and herbal expert Michael Castleman, some critics contend that distillation removes many of the astringent tannins, leaving water that is of little medicinal value. Castleman has noted that while herbalists recommend that only a decoction of witch hazel be used, the commercially prepared liquid has properties that are reportedly antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, astringent, and anesthetic.
In Puerto Rican communities, a witch hazel compound known as agua maravilla is sometimes reported to be used as a therapy for asthma. The mixture, containing juice of aloe vera, honey, garlic, onion, and other substances, is ingested.

availability and dosage: Witch hazel is readily available in the United States in most pharmacies, supermarkets, and botdnicas. It is also present in hemorrhoid preparations. Agua maravilla is available in botdnicas. Herbalists recommend using up to 2 grams of dried leaves or bark to make a tea to use as a gargle. For an astringent decoction, a similar amount can be used per cup of boiling water. For external topical use, consult the directions on the product.

contraindications: Pregnant and breast-feeding women should avoid using it internally.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
There is the risk of nausea and vomiting if large amounts are ingested. Skin irritation may also result from topical use.

medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Thyme

Thyme

scientific name: Thymus vulgaris

other common names: Tomillo, mother of thyme, garden thyme

growing areas: Native to southern Europe; cultivated around the world

physical description: It is an aromatic shrub with woody stems, small leaves, and pink flowers.

traditional uses: Thyme is another example of a plant that has long been used for both cooking and medicinal purposes. Pliny said it was useful as a treatment for headaches and snakebite, possibly because of the way the plant's stem resembles a serpent. In ancient times it was used as a cough remedy, to treat gastrointestinal problems, and to treat intestinal worms. During medieval times, women gave their knights scarves embroidered with sprigs of thyme as a symbol of bravery. Herbalists from that period said thyme induced childbirth. By the eighteenth century, thyme's antiseptic properties were known, and its oil, known as thymol, was extracted and made available. It was used widely as an antiseptic up to World War I, when shortages of thymol developed. It gradually came to be replaced by other antiseptics.
Herbalists use thyme as an antiseptic, expectorant, massage oil, chest rub, and antibiotic. In Costa Rica the herb is used to combat intestinal worms and to treat warts, diarrhea, toothache, whooping cough, scabies, and flatulence. It is also considered a powerful strength-ener of the lungs. Thymol is a key ingredient in Listerine, a popular mouthwash.

availability and dosage: Thyme is available in many supermarkets and health food stores. It is also available as a liquid extract and can also be purchased as a dried plant in botdnicas. Thyme can be applied directly to the skin to relieve insect bites and help rheumatic pain. Infusions of up to 2 grams of dried herb can be used for tea. An infusion can also be used for a gargle. A dilution of essential oil of thyme can be used on skin for certain conditions.

contraindications: Since it has a history of use as a' uterine stimulant, it should not be used by pregnant women. Fetrow and Avila caution that it should not be used by persons with a history of gastritis and intestinal disorders, nor by those allergic to plants such as grass, nor by those with enterocolitis or cardiac insufficiency.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes. Pure thymol should not be taken internally, since even small amounts can be toxic. Thyme may cause allergic reactions in some persons.

medical research: Thyme has been reported as exhibiting antifungal activity and showing spasmolytic action in animal tests.

Herbs: Sour Cane

Sour Cane

scientific name: Costusspicatus

other common names: Cana agria, canita agria, cana amarga

growing areas: Native to an area from Mexico to Brazil

physical description: A tall perennial plant with thin, fleshy stems. The leaves are egg-shaped and pointed at the tip with brown hairs on the edges.

traditional uses: Sour cane contains a bitter-tasting sap that is obtained from the plant by crushing it. It is used in Central America for a variety of ailments. In Costa Rica it is used for muscle pain and kidney and urinary function, and is sold widely by herb vendors as a fresh item. In the West Indies, the plant decoction is taken to relieve flatulence and rheumatism, and in Trinidad it is used to relieve the urinary burning that accompanies venereal disease, according to Julia Morton. She also noted that some Brazilians drink the plant juice with sugar and water as a hot-weather beverage.

availability and dosage: Available by mail order. No information available on dosage.
contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

medical research: Nonenpted.

Herbs: Sarsaparilla

Sarsaparilla

scientific name: Smilax officinalis

other common names: Cuculmeca, zazaparilla, brown sarsaparilla

growing areas: Native to Central America and Colombia

physical description: Sarsaparilla is a woody vine that can grow to a length of about 15 feet. It has tendrils that help it climb, ovate (egg-shaped) leaves, and green flowers. Its root is narrow and very long and is used for medicinal purposes.

traditional uses: The plant was brought from the New World to Spain, along with China root (Smilax china), with great fanfare in the sixteenth century as a cure for syphilis after it had been used with some success in the Caribbean. It was listed in Nicholas Mo-nardes's book Joyful Newes out of the Newe Founde Worlde as a wonderful medicinal plant of that time. However, its usefulness as a cure for venereal disease dropped off, although it continued to be used for that purpose well into the nineteenth century. It became a flavoring agent for root beer but has been replaced by artificial ingredients.

In traditional medicine, sarsaparilla has been used as a so-called blood purifier, as an anti-inflammatory, and as a cleansing agent. It is commonly used to treat psoriasis and eczema. It has steroid components and for that reason is reported to have been used by athletes as a performance-boosting medicine, as well as a possible treatment for impotence. It does not, however, contain testosterone, as some popularly believed. In Costa Rica it is used as a cold remedyf and a tonic for boosting immunity, and in Jamaica it is used as a diuretic. Commission E reported that it is used for rheumatic complaints, for kidney diseases, and as a diuretic and diaphoretic.

availability and dosage: Sarsaparilla is available in powdered form as a tea or tablet and also as a liquid. For psoriasis, some experts recommend taking 1 to 4 grams of dried root or up to 30 milliliters of concentrated sarsaparilla compound as a decoction. A couple of teaspoons of powdered root as a decoction are also recommended as a diuretic.

contraindications: Pregnant or breast-feeding women should not use sarsaparilla. It is also contraindicated if an individual is taking digitalis or bismuth.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Sarsaparilla is considered by the Food and Drug Administration as safe for use as a flavoring agent. However, Commission E labels it as a medicinal plant whose use is unapproved. The commission cautions that sarsaparilla can lead to gastric upset and temporary kidney impairment. Sarsaparilla may also affect the action of other herbs taken with it, and the commission cautions that it may also interact with digitalis and bismuth. Other experts say it can lead to nausea or kidney damage.

medical research: Medical research into sarsaparilla, given its long history of use as a medicinal plant, is rather modest. One study from the 1940s found that psoriasis patients treated with sarsaparilla showed improvement. However, that study has been criticized because of its design. Sarsaparilla has shown anti-inflammatory activity in rodents. There have been reports of tests in China showing that up to 90 percent of acute cases of syphilis were effectively treated with sarsaparilla.

Herbs: Sage

Sage

scientific name: Salvia officinalis

other common names: Garden sage, salvia, meadow sage, salvia virgen

growing areas: Native to southern Europe; widely cultivated

physical description: Sage is a perennial evergreen shrub that grows about 3 feet high. Its leaves are oval, green, and velvety. Its flowers, which bloom in the summer, run from white to purple.

traditional uses: Like many medicinal herbs, sage is widely used in cooking. But sage also has a long reputation for treating a number of medical conditions, and its genus name, Salvia, derives from the Latin, meaning "to cure." Historians also note that a medieval saying by Italian medical students asserted, "Why should a man die who grows sage in his garden?" According to herb expert Michael Castleman, sage was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans as a meat preservative, as a memory enhancer, to treat problems such as epilepsy and snakebite, and to promote menstrual flow.
In more modern times, sage has been used as an antiseptic and astringent, a digestive tonic, an antiperspi-rant, and a method for controlling irregular menstruation and menopausal problems. A preparation of sage is used as a gargle for sore throat, mouth ulcers, sore gums, and tonsillitis. In Costa Rica, sage Is used for wounds, arthritis, asthma, and problems with-the prostate gland. It is also a commonly used herb among Mexicans. In Europe it has been used to lower blood sugar in diabetics.

availability and dosage: Dried leaves are available in food stores and in botdnicas for further home preparation. Sage is also available through suppliers as a liquid extract. The dosages vary according to the herbalist. For a gargle, a weak infusion is recommended, using from one to four leaves. For menstruation problems, a tincture of up to 4 milliliters of leaf extract has been recommended by some experts. Fresh sage leaf is also applied directly to stings or bites as a treatment.

contraindications: Use of sage should be avoided by pregnant women because of the herb's reputation for causing abortions. Diabetic patients also have to use sage cautiously because of its ability to lower blood sugar. Fetrow and Avila recommend that it be used carefully by persons already receiving anticonvulsants.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
While it has a long history as a medicinal herb, sage is viewed with caution by some doctors, pharmacists, and herbalists. In their professional handbook on alternative medicines, Fetrow and Avila advise that sage can interact with anticonvulsants, disulfiram, insulin, and other diabetic therapies. Herb expert Michael Castleman cautions that sage oil is toxic and should not be ingested. But he also notes that one toxic chemical contained in sage, thujone, while causing convulsions, is mostly eliminated by the heat of infusion preparation using plant leaves.

medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Rue

Rue

scientific name: Ruta graveolens

other common names: Ruda, ruta, garden rue, German rue

growing areas: Native to Europe; widely grown in Latin America

physical description: Rue is a small, erect bush that grows to a height of about 3 feet. The shoots of the plant are pale green and appear covered in oil glands. It produces small yellow flowers, and its fruit contains rutin, the volatile oil that gives it a bitter taste.

traditional uses: In ancient times, rue was considered a major remedy. It is mentioned more than eighty times by Pliny, but its reputation has lessened because it can be toxic. Still, it is reportedly used in a number of cultures as a beverage, and it is used in Costa Rica as an antispasmodic, emmenagogue, abortifacient, emetic, disinfectant, diuretic, and as a? treatment for epilepsy and worms. It is also used to speed labor in childbirth. Rue water is used as an insecticide and flea repellent. As a liniment, it is used on sore muscles.
Hispanics in the United States have reported using rue to treat empacho and mal op. Curanderos use rue as part of their limpias, or ritual spiritual cleansings. It is sometimes worn in amulets.

availability and dosage: It is available through mail order and as a dried herb and liquid extract. Dosages vary.

contraindications: Since rue causes abortions and uterine contractions and can act as an emmenagogue, it should not be used by pregnant women. Breast-feeding women should also not use it.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Despite its wide use, rue is one of the more dangerous plants used medicinally. It is known to be an abortifa-cient and to cause skin irritation. It has also been known to cause severe stomach problems and vomiting and, according to Balick, has been reported in some cases to be ' fatal to the mother when used to cause an abortion. Given the various problems associated with it, rue should be avoided.

medical research: Rue has been shown in animal experiments to act as an anticonvulsant, and extracts of it displayed antibacterial and antituberculosis activity in laboratory experiments, according to Balick and Arvigo. In other experiments, chloroform extracts of the root, stem, and leaf of the plant showed significant antifertility activity in rats.

Herbs: Rosemary

Rosemary

scientific name: Rosemarinus officinalis other common names: Romero, compass plant,

old man growing areas: Native to southern Europe; grows in the United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America

physical description: Rosemary is a perennial evergreen shrub that is very aromatic and grows from 3 to 7 feet in height. It has narrow green leaves resembling pine needles.

traditional uses: A useful cooking herb, rosemary is long on legend and lore. It/was considered to enhance memory in ancient times, lo much so that students are said to have burned it at home before exams or worn it in garlands. It was used to preserve meats in the days before refrigeration, and it became a symbol of remembrance during funerals. In Hamlet, Ophelia remarks to the king, "There's rosemary, that's for remembrance. Pray you, love, remember." In European folklore it was believed to stave off bad dreams and was a symbol of love. Legend has it that Queen Elizabeth of Hungary in the thirteenth century was cured of the pain of rheumatism after her limbs were bathed in a wine decoction containing rosemary.

Medicinally, rosemary has been used as an astringent, anti-inflammatory, and antiseptic, as well as an abortifacient, emmenagogue, and tonic. In parts of Central America rosemary has been used for nervous disorders, to cleanse wounds and skin ulcers, to relieve headaches, and for washing hair. A poll of Mexicans found rosemary to be among the top herbs they listed as being used medicinally, largely for menstrual and digestive problems.

availability and dosage: Rosemary is found in herb form in supermarkets and other food stores. It is also available as a tea or essential oil. Some herbalists recommend that the essential oil be used externally or in a diffuser to permeate the atmosphere. Herbalists recommend that a tea can be made from up to 4 grams of leaf and taken as often as three times a day. contraindications: Rosemary should not be taken in medicinal quantities by pregnant or breast-feeding women.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
While the undiluted essential oil has a history of being taken internally, a number of experts believe it should not be consumed because it can lead to stomach or other gastrointestinal problems. German experts, however, have approved rosemary for internal use for indigestion and rheumatism.

medical research: Essential oil of rosemary was noted by European researchers as being among a group of powerful convulsants.

Herbs: Rhatany

Rhatany

scientific name: Krameria triandra

other common names: Raiz para, mapato, Peruvian rhatany, pumacuchu growing areas: Western slopes of the Andes in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia, at altitudes of up to 10,000 feet

physical description: Rhatany is an evergreen shrub that grows about 3 feet in height and produces a large red flower. Its root, the part that is used medicinally, is deep.

traditional uses: The major traditional use of rhatany is as an astringent and for gastrointestinal problems. It is also reported to be used by indigenous peoples as a tooth preservative. Herbalists say it is useful as a mouthwash and to treat sore throat and canker sores. Commission E reports that it is used as a topical treatment for inflammations on the oral and pharyngeal mucosae. The primary active ingredients are tannins.

availability and dosage: Commission E recommends about 1 gram of powdered root in a cup of water as a decoction or 5 to 10 drops of rhatany tincture in a glass of water three times a day.

contraindications: Fetrow and Avila report that rhatany is contraindicated for persons sensitive to substances in the plant.
special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Fetrow and Avila warn that products containing tannic acid are generally considered unsafe and ineffective and that frequent use can compromise the mucous membranes so that toxicity results. Commission E says that allergic reactions of the mucous membranes may occur in rare cases.

medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Quinine Bark

Quinine Bark

scientific name: Cinchona officinalis

other common names: Cinchona, fever tree, cinchona bark

growing areas: Native to South America, primarily in the area of the Peruvian Amazon basin; also cultivated in other areas of the region and in Java and India

physical description: Cinchona is an evergreen that can reach a height of over 75 feet. It has a deep reddish bark and produces yellow-and-white flowers. There are about forty related tree species.

traditional uses: For many centuries, cinchona has been used by the indigenous peoples of Peru, including the Incas, for malaria, digestive problems, and fever. It is known to stimulate secretion of saliva and digestive juices. Western contact with cinchona arose during the Spanish conquest of the Americas. Some legends hold that a sick Spanish soldier drank from a pool of water into which a cinchona tree had fallen, while another story holds that the wife of the viceroy of Peru was cured by the bark and reported to Europe about the marvels of cinchona. Whatever the truth may be, cinchona became widely accepted in the West as a cure for malaria, which had been a problem in European cities at one time. In 1820, French chemists Joseph Caventou and Joseph Pel-letier identified and isolated the alkaloid quinine from cinchona bark. The need for quinine, an agent effective against the mosquito-transmitted protozoan that causes malaria, required a substantial export trade from South America, which led to a monopoly. Finally the monopoly was broken when cinchona seeds were cultivated in Dutch Java, which came to dominate the world trade in cinchona.

During World War II American officials were almost without any source of quinine because of Japanese conquests in the Far East. U.S. officials then turned to the forests of South America to get cinchona bark so that quinine could be extracted. After the war, new antimalarial drugs began to be manufactured and the demand for cinchona dropped off, although it remained useful in treating heart arrhythmias and had a long-standing use as a flavoring agent. However, the appearance of malaria parasites resistant to the new drugs has renewed interest in quinine as a treatment.

availability and dosage: It is available in the United States as an herb powder made from bark. Commission E recommends 1 to 3 grams of the dried bark; 0.6 to 3 grams of cinchona liquid extract (4 to 5 percent total alkaloids); 0.15 to 0.6 grams of cinchona extract (15 to 20 percent total alkaloids). Herbalists recommend that a half cup of the bark decoction can be taken one to three times daily.

contraindications: Herbalists warn that cinchona is not to be taken by pregnant or breast-feeding women. Persons with allergies to cinchona alkaloids are also cautioned about its use. Commission E states that it may increase the effect of anticoagulants.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Herbalists caution that it should be used only under medical supervision. Cinchona is reputed to be toxic when used excessively and can lead to nausea, deafness, and other physical problems. Contact dermatitis and asthma are sometimes reported to have stricken workers in factories where cinchona bark was ground.
medical research: The scientific literature is filled with information about the efficacy of cinchona in the treatment of malaria and arrhythmia. A survey of medicinal plants also shows that cinchona is used as an antiepilep-tic treatment.

Herbs: Picao Preto

Picao Preto

scientific name: Bidens pilosa other common names: Black Jack, Spanish nettle, mozote

growing areas: Native to South America, Africa, and the Caribbean

physical description: Bidens pilosa is a small annual herb that grows to a height of about 3 feet. It has a small yellow flower.

traditional uses : It is reported to be used in the Peruvian Amazon for a number of ailments, including angina, dysentery, and worms. It is also used in Peru as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory, as well as to speed childbirth and as a treatment for hepatitis, according to Leslie Taylor.

availability and dosage: It is available in the United States as a powder. Dosages vary. Herbalists recommend a half cup of the decoction three times a day.

contraindications: Since it is reported to be used as a uterine stimulant, it should be avoided by pregnant women.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Brazilian researchers have said that the use of Bidens pilosa must await clarification of the plant's toxicity because a link with esophageal cancer has been suggested.

medical research: Bidens pilosa was among fifty-four plant extracts tested in an experiment of antibacterial activity in South Africa. Five types of bacteria were used in the study, including E. coli and two types of staphylococcus. The bacteria were placed in sterile petri dishes, the extracts were then introduced, and the antibacterial activity was determined by the size of the zone of inhibition or clear space where the organism did not grow. The Bidens pilosa extract was found to have some of the highest antibacterial activity against the staphylococcus strains, but not the E. coll. The results tended to support the traditional medicinal uses of the plant, the researchers concluded.

Herbs: Periwinkle

Periwinkle

scientific name: Catharanthus roseus

other common names: Rosy periwinkle, vinca rosea, chata

growing areas: Native to Madagascar; cultivated in numerous other places

physical description: It is an herb that grows to a height of about 3 feet. Its leaves are green and shiny, and it produces a pink flower.

traditional uses: The periwinkle is one of the best examples of a plant that has become a prime source of medicine for humans, serving as the basis for drugs to combat Hodgkin's disease and childhood leukemia. While originating in Madagascar, it was brought to Europe in the eighteenth century and spread from there, often being used as an ornamental plant. Before it began to be used as a source of modern drugs, periwinkle had a long history as a treatment for tumors, asthma, and diabetes and for use as an astringent, diuretic, and to increase menstrual flow. In parts of Central America and the Caribbean, the root and leaf are used to treat diabetes.

availability and dosage: It is available in the form of a powder. Dosages vary. Herbalists recommend using a teaspoon of dried herb to make an infusion that can be consumed up to three times a day. Two medicines derived from periwinkle, vinblastine for Hodgkin's disease and vincristine for childhood leukemia, are used by doctors as part of therapeutic regimes.

contraindications: See "Special Precautions."

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Commission E reports that periwinkle has proved to be destructive to blood components in animal experiments. Because most of its claimed uses have not been documented, Commission E states that the use of periwinkle is not justified.

medical research: Periwinkle has been extensively studied by scientists, who have identified owr seventy alkaloids from the plant parts, including vincristine and vinblastine. The investigation of periwinkle began in the 1950s, when the National Cancer Institute began a program of screening plant chemicals for possible use against leukemia. Some pharmaceutical companies involved in the study expanded the search and found anticancer activity in a number of the alkaloids. Vinblastine was isolated in 1961 and approved for the treatment of Hodgkin's disease and testicular and breast cancer. Two years later vincristine was licensed for use against childhood leukemia. "Long term, disease-free survivals have been observed in the treatment of various lymphomas and leukemias, bladder cancer, and testicular cancer, while significant palliative benefits have been seen in patients with breast cancer, melanoma, and small-cell lung cancer," write Gordon M. Cragg and Michael R. Boyd of the NCI.

Herbs: Pedra Hume Caa

Pedra Hume Caa

scientific name: Myrcia salicifolia other common names: Insulina vegetal

growing areas: Native to South America and the West Indies

physical description: Myrcia salicifolia is a shrub with small green leaves and large orange-red flowers, said Leslie Taylor. /

traditional uses: In the Amazon, researchers found it to be used by Indians as a treatment for severe diarrhea and as an astringent and emetic. It has also been used to treat diabetes.

availability and dosage: It is available in the United States as cut-and-sifted leaf. Dosages vary. Herbalists recommend a half cup of the leaf infusion two or three times a day.

contraindications: Diabetics run the risk of hypoglycemia.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

medical research: Research has shown that it has an inhibiting effect on serum glucose levels in diabetic rodents. One experiment involving the feeding of rats for three weeks with an extract of Myrcia uniflora improved metabolism of glucose compounds. However, another study detected no beneficial effect.

Herbs: Pau d'Arco

Pau d'Arco

scientific name: Tabebuia impetiginosa other common names: Lapachol, lapacho, trumpet bush growing areas: Native to South and Central America

physical description: It is a large flowering evergreen tree that can grow up to 15 feet high. The tree produces a large pink flower. The tree's durable wood has made it a target of loggers in the Amazon area, according to concerned environmentalists. There has also been concern raised over the harvesting of the tree's inner bark to produce folk medicine.

traditional uses: Pau d'arco's history.as a medicinal plant has been controversial. In folk m/dicine, lapachol is obtained from the inner bark of the tree and has been used in Latin America for the treatment of colds, flu, arthritis, rheumatism, syphilis, and cancer. It also has been used to treat disorders of the immune system such as psoriasis. Because of pau d'arco's traditional use to treat cancer in some cultures, it has received a great deal of attention and publicity as a possible cure. But despite great fanfare, testing of the extracts from the plant have, according to a number of experts and government officials, not supported the use of lapachol as a treatment for cancer. AIDS patients have also turned to pau d'arco as an alternative treatment, most likely because it has a reputation as a remedy for immune system problems.

availability and dosage: Pau d'arco is available in capsules, tablets, extracts, and teas. The bark is sold as a powder. Dosages may vary and run from 1 to 4 capsules a day for a week. Some suppliers recommend 300 milligrams of powdered bark three times a day. A tea is also made by boiling the bark in water for eight to ten minutes.

contraindications: Pau d'arco contains substances that researchers believe can cause problems with coagulation, which makes use of the plant questionable for people suffering from coagulation disorders or taking anticoagulants. Experts also say pregnant and breastfeeding women should avoid the herb.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes. Certain substances in pau d'arco present a danger of toxicity in humans. Fetrow and Avila recommend that pau d'arco not be used because of the problem of toxicity.

medical research: During the 1960s, after it gained a reputation as a folk treatment for cancer, lapachol was put into clinical trials by the National Cancer Institute. However, in 1974 it was reportedly dropped by the NCI after failing to produce. significant results that outweighed its serious side effects. The negative experience of the NCI apparently did not forestall others from experimenting with lapachol as a cancer therapy, and there have been reports of trials in other countries that have shown beneficial results.

While cancer experiments in the United States did not go well, lapachol seemed to fare better with experiments aimed at testing its usefulness as an antipsoriatic and anti-inflammatory agent. In an experiment in Brazil, lapachol was found to have significant anti-inflammatory action, diminishing swelling in rodents by as much as 85 percent, depending on the dosage. Results of another experiment published in 1999 showed that lapachol compounds stopped the growth of human keratinocytes, the cells involved in psoriasis.

Herbs: Papaya

Papaya

scientific name: Caricapapoya other common names: Paw paw, melon tree, put, papaya real

growing areas: Native to Mexico and Central America; cultivated in the Caribbean and Asia, as well as other tropical areas

physical description: Papaya is a tree with a thick trunk that can grow up to 25/reet high. Its leaves are lobed, can grow up to 2 feet across, and resemble those of an oak. The papaya tree produces a large (up to 11 pounds) oval-shaped fruit that hangs from the trunk; its yellowish pulp is sweet. A latex substance is obtained from its stem, leaves, and fruit.

traditional uses: For centuries, people in the Caribbean knew of papaya's ability to tenderize meat, and the leaves are still used for that purpose today. This characteristic is attributed to a number of enzymes, notably papain, which are contained in the latex of the unripe papaya fruit and help to break down protein. In traditional medicine, papaya has been used to aid digestion, most certainly because papain acts similarly to human peptic acids. In Belize, the plant is used to help in the healing of wounds and infections, while the green fruit, when boiled and eaten, is said to aid in the purging of intestinal parasites, report Balick and Arvigo. They also report that women have used roasted and ground papaya seeds in a formula for contraception.

availability and dosage: Papaya fruit is readily available in the United States in food and fruit stores. Papaya enzyme is also available in tablet form. Doses may vary, although some herbalists recommend using a tea made from 1 or 2 teaspoons of dried papaya leaf before meals as an aid to digestion.

contraindications: Pregnant women should not use medicinal amounts of papaya, as it has a history of use as a uterine stimulant. Breast-feeding women should also not use it.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Excessive use of papaya may cause gastric upset, allergic reaction, and possibly perforation of the esophagus, according to experts. It may also act as a purge if too much is taken. Ingestion by dogs of papain has been linked to birth defects. An extract of the fruit has been shown to affect human cardiac activity.

medical research: According to Balick and Arvigo, a number of studies have been done that show papaya to have antibacterial and antifungal activity. They also reported that a study from 1947 showed that a water extract of the papaya fruit worked as a human cardiac depressant. Human clinical trials indicate that papaya can treat inflammation from surgery or accident and that it can be used to reduce postoperative edema in cases of head and neck surgery, write Fetrow and Avila.

Herbs: Oregano

Oregano

scientific name: Lippiagraveolens, Origanum vulgare other common names: Oregano castillo, yerba dulce, wild marjoram

growing areas: Lippia graveolens grows in temperate and tropical areas.

physical description: Lippia graveolens is a shrub that grows up to 6 feet in height and has aromatic flowers.

traditional uses: There are about forty different plants known by the name oregano. Lippia graveolens and related plants are known as a food seasoning. But oregano also has a long history of use as a medicinal plant. The Chinese are reported to have used it beginning in ancient times to treat fever, diarrhea, and vomiting. Among Mexicans, a species of oregano (Monarda menthaefolia) is listed in one survey as being among the top ten medicinal plants used in their culture to treat the symptoms of cold and flu, as well as coughs, sore throat, and congestion. Based upon fieldwork done in Belize, Balick and Arvigo found that oregano is used as a tea to treat upper respiratory tract infections, induce menstruation, and, when taken a week after childbirth as a leaf decoction, to help a new mother, expel a retained placenta. A boiled leaf solution is also said to be a good wash for wounds and burns.

availability and dosage: Oregano is widely available in supermarkets and food stores. The essential oil derived from the plant is also available, though herbalists caution that it should not be taken internally. For treating colds, teas made with boiling water using up to 3 teaspoons of herb or up to half a cup of fresh leaves as much as three times a day are recommended by some experts.

contraindications: Pregnant women should not use medicinal amounts of oregano, as it has a history of use as a uterine stimulant. Some experts say oregano can interfere with the absorption of iron.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Experts caution that children under the age of two should not be given medicinal amounts of oregano. It may also produce allergic reactions and gastrointestinal discomfort.

medical research: Oregano was found to inhibit the growth of eleven different microbes in one Australian study.

Herbs: Nettle

Nettle

scientific name: Urtica dioica

other common names: Common nettle, big string nettle, stinging nettle

growing areas: Temperate regions of the world

physical description: It is a perennial bush that can grow up to 7 feet tall. Its leaves are triangular-shaped and edged with points. It produces a flower that ranges in color from white to yellow. Bristles on the leaves and stems can sting, hence the common name.

traditional uses: The major interest in nettle today is in its use to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), or enlarged prostate gland, a common condition for men over the age of fifty. It is used in combination with another herb, saw palmetto, for prostate health. But over the ages nettle has had a number of medicinal uses. Dioscorides listed it in his famous book of herbal remedies from the first century as a treatment for nosebleeds. The ancient Greeks used it to treat coughs and arthritis. It has a history of use as an astringent, to treat skin conditions, and as a remedy for baldness. It was also used to promote childbirth and stop uterine bleeding. It is used as a diuretic and as therapy for rheumatism and inflammations of the urinary tract.

availability and dosage: Nettle is available as a capsule and as an extract, powder, or tincture of the root and leaf. Dosages may vary and can range from a recommended intake of one capsule of 100 milligrams a day to a total of 300 milligrams. Teas can be made of up to 2 teaspoons per cup twice a day. Commission E recommends dosages between 8 and 10 grams of the herb and leaf daily and 4 to 6 grams of the root. It is also available as an element in herbal preparations.

contraindications: Commission E reported that no contraindications were known. However, some pharmacists report that nettle is contraindicated in pregnant women because it is a stimulant of uterine contractions. Breast-feeding women should also not use it.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Internal use has been known to cause occasional gastrointestinal upset. The hairs on the plant contain chemicals that can cause severe skin irritation.

medical research: Nettle does not appear to reduce the enlarged prostate gland in humans but rather increases the flow and volume of urine, according to the findings of Commission E. However, some research done in Germany has indicated that nettle inhibits prostatic hyperplasia in mice. In the German experiments, the prostate glands of mice were treated to create prostatic hyperplasia and five preparations of stinging nettle root extract, each prepared with a different method of liquid extraction, were tested. The experiment found that ethanol extracts and water extracts had the greatest effect on inhibiting the growth of the mice prostate glands. However, the researchers were unclear as to how the extracts worked. Another experiment, done in Japan on prostate tissue taken from a human patient suffering from an enlarged gland, suggested that steroids and other components in the stinging nettle roots inhibit prostate cell growth and metabolism.

Herbs: Muira Puama

Muira Puama

scientific name: Ptychopetalum qlacoides

other common names: Potency wood, marapuama,
marapama, potenzholz growing areas: Native to the Amazon region, particularly Brazil

physical description: It is a bush that grows up to 15 feet in height and produces a small white flower that has a jasminelike fragrance, said Leslie Taylor.

traditional uses: Based on his extensive travels and observations in South America, Richard Schultes reports that muira puama is used to treat neuromuscular problems, baldness, rheumatism, asthma, and gastrointestinal and cardiac problems. A bath of the root is used to treat paralysis. However, its major use is as an aphrodisiac tonic in the Amazon. James Duke also reports that the drug has a long history of use in Brazil as an aphrodisiac and nerve stimulant.
Commission E has noted that while muira puama is used to prevent sexual problems and as an aphrodisiac, its effectiveness has not been documented and that it is not approved for use. However, an extract of muira puama has been marketed in Europe under the names Herbal v-Y and Herbal v-X to treat impotency in men and sexual problems in women.

availability and dosage: It is available as a bark powder and as a concentrated liquid extract. Herbal formulas in tablet form were available in Europe in the late 1990s.

contraindications: Reported to be contraindicated for persons taking MAO inhibitors.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes. Muira puama should not be taken during pregnancy or lactation.

medical research: Researchers in France are reported ' to have used herbal preparations from muira puama for over a decade with one hundred impotent male patients, over 60 percent of whom reported significant improvement in their sex lives after a month's use.

Herbs: Mugwort

Mugwort

scientific name: Artemisia vulgaris

other common names: Ajenjo, carline thistle (a related herb, Artemisia absinthium, is known in Mexican culture as ajenjo and also commonly known in English as wormwood, and is considered a more dangerous herb)

growing areas: Native to North America and China

physical description: It is an ornamental plant with lobed leaves, which grow in sets of two on the stem.

traditional uses: Anglo-Saxons considered it a sacred herb, and it is said by historians to have been used by Roman soldiers, who placed sprigs of the plant in their shoes to prevent foot problems during long marches. It is used in modern times as a treatment for dysmenorrhea, colic, diarrhea, constipation, and cramps. It is also considered an anthelmintic (a substance that 'destroys or causes the body to expel intestinal worms) and an emmenagogue. Russians reportedly have used it as an abortifacient and for bladder stones, and there are additional reports that it is useful for depression and neuroses.

availability and dosage: It is available as a dried leaf or root, as well as in a fluid extract and tincture. Herbalists recommend varying dosages, including up to 5 grams in a decoction for menstrual pain. Some experts recommend an infusion of up to 15 grams of the dried plant for such pain.

contraindications: Because it can cause uterine contractions, it should not be used by pregnant women. Breast-feeding women should not use it.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

Mugwort is believed to cause uterine contractions and may cause contact dermatitis, according to some experts. Avila and Fetrow caution that patients taking anticoagulants or with bleeding problems should not take mugwort. Duke reports that in large doses mugwort can be toxic and that a constituent element, thujone, can cause epileptic seizures. It may also cause dermatitis and allergic reaction in some people.

medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Mozote

Mozote

scientific name: Triumfetta semitriloba other common names: Pega pega, burr bush, mozote de caballo

growing areas: Native to Central America, the Caribbean, and parts of South America

physical description: Mozote is a shrub that grows to a height of about 3 feet. Its leaves are generally three-lobed and toothed. It produces a yellow flower, and the undersides of the leaves are hairy. • traditional uses: In Costa Rica mozote is used as a treatment for colds and diarrhea. According to Julia Morton, Mexicans use a decoction of the root for treating venereal disease, as well as kidney and liver problems, while a more astringent leaf decoction is used in Yucatan to treat hemorrhoids and leukorrhea. availability and dosage: Available by mail order in the United States and Central America. No information available on dosage.

contraindications: Should be avoided by pregnant women.
special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Maracuja

Maracuja

scientific name: Passiflora incamata

other common names: Passionflower, maypop, pas-sionaria, maracuya

growing areas: Native to Central and South America and parts of the southern United States; cultivated in Europe and North America

physical description: It is a climbing vine that can grow close to 30 feet long. Maracuja, or passionflower, as it is commonly called, has a three-lobed leaf that resembles a trident. Its flower is distinctive and has five stamens.

traditional uses: Legend has it that following the conquest of the Incas by the Spaniards, a priest, looking for a divine sign that Spain's action was proper, discovered a flower on a vine in the Andes that symbolized the crucifixion of Christ. The flower's five stamens have come to symbolize the five wounds of Christ on the cross, and its three styles stand for the three nails used in the crucifixion.
After its discovery by the priest, passionflower was imported to Europe as a tea and was used as a sedative. In the United States it has been used as a sedative and to treat insomnia, anxiety, and panic. Experts also report that it is used to relax muscles and can relieve the discomfort of menstruation. By reducing anxiety, passionflower may also have other collateral effects on the body, such as lowering high blood pressure.

While passionflower was considered a sedative for many years in the United States, it was reported that the Food and Drug Administration removed it from the list of herbs generally considered as safe in 1978 because it was not proven effective as a sleeping aid. However, in Europe it- is considered safe and useful in treating nervous restlessness.

availability and dosage: It is available as a dried herb, liquid extract, and tincture. Dosages vary. Some herbalists recommend dosages for tea ranging from 0.5 grams to 2.5 grams of the herb in boiling water up to three times daily. Commission E recommends 4 to 8 grams in a preparation. Herbal experts recommend a teaspoon of crushed leaves steeped in a cup of boiling water for about ten minutes to help with insomnia.

contraindications: It has been reported that in Norway a number of patients admitted to a hospital with altered states of consciousness had taken an insomnia remedy that was derived from passionflower. It was believed that the product may have interacted with other drugs to cause an intoxicating effect. Some experts also believe it is contraindicated for pregnant and breastfeeding women.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Since passionflower appears to act on the central nervous system, it may interact with other depressants. It may also contain a uterine stimulant.

medical research: A series of experiments with mice who received injections of passionflower extracts has shown that the plant contains chemicals that act as a central nervous system depressant. In one French study, mice showed reduced activity when treated with a water extract. In addition, the extract caused the mice to go to sleep when it followed a dose of phenobarbital. But the strength of the tranquilizer seems to depend on the solvent used to prepare the extract. For instance, when an extract was prepared with a water and alcohol agent, the mice appeared to show more activity, not less. Other studies with rodents show general sedative activity of the passionflower extract, including an instance when rats showed diminished activity when they were kept for a three-week period on oral doses of passionflower.

Herbs: Manaca

Manaca

scientific name: Brunfelsia uniflorus

other common names: Manacan, vegetable mercury

growing areas: Native to areas of the Amazon basin

physical description: An ornamental shrub, manaca produces a beautiful yellow-white flower. In his work on medicinal plants, James Duke recounts a legend that the plant's name is attributed to a beautiful girl of the Tupi Indians of Brazil.
traditional uses: The Tupi use the plant in their medicinal and magical practices, according to Duke, who notes that the Indians once used a root extract of manaca as an arrow poison and that the scraped bark is considered a strong purgative. The common name vegetable mercury stems from the plant's use in traditional medicine for the treatment of syphilis. Based on his extensive travels in the Amazon area, botanist Richard Schultes reports that indigenous peoples use manaca as a treatment for rheumatism, as a diuretic, as an antiinflammatory, to reduce fevers, and sometimes as an ab-ortifacient. It has also been used as a hallucinogen, but with bad effects, Schultes writes.

availability and dosage: It is available as cut-and-sifted bark. Dosages vary.

contraindications: Since it is reported to have been used as an abortifacient, it should not be used by pregnant women.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Manaca is reported to be toxic to children and pets and should be avoided.

medical research: Laboratory tests in Brazil showed manaca to have anti-inflammatory properties. An extract of a related species, Brunfelsia hopeana, was shown in an experiment with rats to act as a central nervous system depressant and an anti-inflammatory. However, toxi-cological studies done in the United States of another species, Brunfelsia calcyina, determined that the consumption by dogs of this plant material was fatal, and researchers cautioned that the plant poses a significant hazard for small children. Duke says that even small doses of the alkaloid manacine, which is found in ma-naca, can lead to death due to respiratory paralysis in laboratory animals.

Herbs: Mallow

Mallow

scientific name: Malvestrum sylvestris other common names: Malva, malva grande, malva real

growing areas: Native to much of South and Central America

physical description: It is a bush herb that grows to a height of 3 feet and generally is found at low elevations. Its stem has been described as stiff with hair, and its leaves have sharp teeth on the edges. Its flowers are reddish purple, and its flat fruit produces seeds that are shaped like kidney beans.
The mucilage contained in the leaves of this species is believed to be the reason why the herb has soothing, emollient qualities.

traditional uses: Mallow has been eaten and used medicinally for thousands of years. In Costa Rica it is thought to stimulate lactation. It is also fiold as an emollient and for use as an enema. According to Fetrow and Avila, mallow is used for irritations of the throat, bronchitis, laryngitis, tonsillitis, and hoarseness. It has also been used in Central America and the Caribbean to treat sores and wounds, as well as as an astringent.

availability and dosage: It is available as a dried leaf or flower. Fetrow and Avila report that the suggested dose is 5 grams daily of chopped, dried herb; an infusion may also be used.

contraindications: Fetrow and Avila recommend it not be used by pregnant or breast-feeding women.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Macela

Macela

scientific name: Achyroclinesatureoides

other common names: Juan bianco, macela do campo, marcela hembra

growing areas: Native to Venezuela and parts of the Brazilian Amazon as well as Central America

physical description: It is an aromatic shrub that grows to a height of about 3 feet. It hasilowers that are small and yellowish or white. The seed/are oval-shaped and bristled.

traditional uses: Macela has a well-respected reputation in South America as a medicinal plant useful in the treatment of gastrointestinal problems and inflammations. In Venezuela it is reported to be used as an emmen-agogue and in Brazil as cough medicine. Argentines also have used it as an emmenagogue and to treat vaginal infections.

availability and dosage: Available in powdered leaf form. Dosages vary. Herbalists recommend a half cup of the leaf infusion once or twice daily.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes. It has been used as an emmenagogue.

medical research: A number of laboratory experiments have demonstrated that macela extracts have been useful in treating artificially induced inflammations in rats. Additional studies have shown the flavonoids present in macela to have analgesic and antispasmodic properties, as well as having an effect on constipation.

In a Brazilian study aimed at evaluating macela's anti-inflammatory properties, the ears of laboratory mice were irritated with the application of croton oil. For each test animal, one swollen ear was treated with the topical application of an extract of macela, while the other was left untreated. Five hours into the experiment, and at the height of the irritation, the animals were sacrificed and small disks were punched out of both ears and weighed. Researchers assumed the difference in the weight of the ears would be an indication of the response of the swelling to the plant extract. The results indicated that a water extract showed the greatest reduction of the swelling (by 41 percent). As a result, the researchers believed the tests supported the use in folk medicine of macela in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Tests have also been done with macela extracts showing that in laboratory settings it has been effective in killing the parasites that cause trypanosomiasis in humans, as well as other microorganisms.

Herbs: Kalallo Bush

Kalallo Bush

scientific name: Corchorus siliquosus other common names: Hiera te, malva te, te de la tierra

growing areas: Native to the Virgin Islands and West Indies; also found in Mexico and Central America

physical description: A bush about 3 feet high with short-stemmed leaves. The flowers are yellow and the seed capsule is flat.

traditional uses: A decoction of this plant is reported to be used frequently in Central America as a refreshing drink. In the Virgin Islands the plant is cooked and eaten and used as a treatment for colds. It has been used as a treatment for venereal disease in Yucatan and for bladder trouble and as a bathwater additive in Cuba, according to Julia Morton.

availability and dosage: The product is not believed to be available in the United States.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Jatoba

Jatoba

scientific name: Hymenaea courbaril

other common names: Courbaril, pois confiture, stinking toe, azucar huayo, West Indian locust

growing areas: Native to Peru and Brazil; also grows in Central America
physical description: This tree can reach 60 feet or higher and has a trunk that can be .over 6 feet in diameter. The base of the tree emits an odorless resin that is found in great quantities around the roots. Its fruit is reddish and oblong with a difficult-to-crack, woody surface. The pulp of the fruit is described by Julia Morton as "odorous, sweet, dry, mealy, buff-colored."

traditional uses: In the Virgin Islands, Hymenaea courbaril is reported to be used as an infusion with blood-purifying properties. Julia Morton reports that it is used in Central America as a vermifuge, as a remedy for hypertension and rheumatism, and as a substitute for quinine, apparently to fight malaria. She reported that the bark decoction has been used to treat diarrhea, dysentery, stomach ulcers, and chest ailments. Fumes of the burning resin, Morton says, have been used in Mexico to relieve asthma and "hysteria."
The fruit is also eaten as a food, and the wood is hard enough to use in carpentry, said Morton.

availability and dosage: Available as a cut-and-sifted bark powder. Dosages vary. Herbalists recommend a half cup of the decoction three times daily.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes. medical research: According to Morton, the high tannin content of the leaves has shown activity against a form of lung cancer in mice during experiments.

Herbs: Jacote

Jacote

scientific name: Spondia mombin

other common names: Jobo, job megro, ciruela de jobo, Spanish plum

growing areas: Native to Southeast Asia and Malaysia; cultivated throught the West Indies, as well as much of Mexico and the rest of Latin America

physical description: This tree can reach 60 feet or higher. It has fragrant red flowers. Its fruit, which are oblong, red or yellow, and fragrant and contain a juicy and acidic pulp, hang in clusters from the tree.

traditional uses: In traditional medicine of Latin America, jacote has many uses for a wide range of illnesses. Brazilians use the bark to make a decoction for the treatment of diarrhea, while a decoction from the flowers and leaves is reportedly used to relieve constipation and stomachache. Famed ethnobotanist Richard Schultes reports that the Tikunas Indians of the Amazon area use a decoction of the bark to relieve pain and to prevent excessive bleeding during menstruation. He says they also use it to treat stomach pains and diarrhea as well as as a wash for wounds. According to Julia Morton, Cubans have traditionally eaten large amounts of the fruit as an emetic, while Haitians take the fruit syrup as a remedy for angina. Mexicans use it to treat diarrhea, while Dominicans have used it as a laxative. Its bark also has a reputation in folk medicine for being useful in treating minor skin ulcers.
The fruit is eaten as a food and can be made into jellies and preserves. The wood is used in the manufacture of crates and other light items.

availability and dosage: It can be purchased through mail-order herbal suppliers in Central America.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

Schultes reports the Amazon Indian belief that "permanent sterility" would result from the drinking of one cup a day of a decoction of jacote following childbirth. According to Morton, Colombians believe the fruit is bad for the throat and that the leaves and bark contain tannin and thus are astringent.
medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Jaborandi

Jaborandi

scientific name: Pilocarpusiaborandi other common names: Indian hemp, pernambuco, ar-ruda brava

growing areas: Northern parts of Brazil

physical description: It is a shrub about 5 feet high with large, feathery leaves.
traditional uses: Pilocarpus jaborandi is one of a number of medicinal plants from the Amazon that have found their way into the mainstream of the medical profession. Explorers to Brazil as far back as the sixteenth century discovered that indigenous tribes used the plant to treat mouth ulcers, colds, and flu. Samples of the plant were eventually taken to Peru, where researchers discovered that it was able to promote sweating and salivation in humans. After continued research, the alkaloid pilocarpine was identified in the plant; this substance has the ability to lower pressure within the eye of a person with glaucoma. As a result of that finding, pilocarpine is used in modern ophthalmology as a treatment for glaucoma.
Pilocarpus Jaborandi is recorded as being used to treat rheumatism, pleurisy, and dropsy in Mexican traditional medicine. It is also said to have a history of use as an emetic in Brazil. availability and dosage: Not generally available,

contraindications: In their professional handbook on alternative and complementary medicine, Charles Fetrow and Juan R. Avila say that pilocarpine is contraindicated for persons sensitive to it, as well as those with uncontrolled asthma. <
special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

Because of risk of toxic symptoms such as excessive sweating, fast heart rate, and salivation, the use of jabo-randi should be undertaken only wpi the advice and ' participation of a doctor.

medical research: None noted.

Herbs: Iporuru

Iporuru

scientific name: Alchornea floribunda other common names: Iporuro, niando, iporoni

growing areas: The floodplains of the Amazon in Peru physical description: Iporuru is an evergreen shrub. traditional uses: Among indigenous Amazonian tribes, the genus is used to treat rheumatism and arthritis. Its perceived anti-inflammatory properties have made iporuru popular in North America as a treatment for arthritis and rheumatism, according to author Leslie Taylor. It is also a plant cultivated in Africa, where it is reported to be used for gonorrhea and coughs.

James Duke reported that the macerated root has been used as a strong intoxicant and aphrodisiac. availability and dosage: Available as a leaf powder. Dosages vary. Herbalists recommend taking one half cup of a leaf infusion one to three times a day.

contraindications: None noted. special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

medical research: A study found that an extract of the bark of a related species appeared to act as an antispasmodic and an antibacterial agent and is thus useful in combating diarrhea.

Monday, June 22, 2009

Herbs: Hortela (peppermint)

Hortela (peppermint)

scientific name: Mentha piperita other common names: Menta, mentha montana growing

areas: Thought to have originated in the Middle East; grows in tropic and temperate zones around the world

physical description: A perennial plant, Mentha piperita grows to a height of about 2 feet. It has a squarish stem and leaves that are serrated on the edges. It produces a light purple flower in the summer months. It also produces rhizomes, which are used for cultivating additional plants.

traditional uses: Peppermint is widely used in traditional medicine around the world as a digestive aid, having a long history of such use dating back to the Roman era. Historians say it was also used in the ancient world to prevent the spoilage of milk.
In modern herbal practice, Mentha piperita is used to treat colic, indigestion, and colds, as well as minor wounds and burns. Some experts say it is used by women to bring on menstrual flow. Among Hispanics, another member of the mint family, spearmint, is used as a home remedy to treat colic, diarrhea, ai/d upper respiratory tract infections. Mexicans use varieties of mint to treat children for the folk illness known as empacho or blocked intestine.

Commission E lists both the leaf and oil of peppermint among the plant substances deemed acceptable for human consumption. The commission reports that peppermint leaf acts as an antispasmodic on the smooth muscles of the digestive tract and is useful as a chola-gogue. Peppermint oil, obtained from the stem of the plant by a distillation process, is also used for treating discomfort of the upper gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts, as well as for catarrh and inflammations of the mucous membranes of the mouth, the commission stated.

availability and dosage: Peppermint is available as an essential oil and in leaf form in health food stores and botdnicas. The essential oil is also available in enteric-coated pill form.
Commission E recommends a dose of 6 to 12 drops a day of peppermint oil for internal use or 0.6 milliliters in enteric-coated capsules daily for irritable colon. For inhalation, 3 or 4 drops of essential oil in hot water is recommended; However, other experts say there is no consensus for the oil's internal use and recommend against taking it in that fashion. An infusion can be made by pouring half a cup of hot water over a teaspoon of the dried pulverized herb.
Peppermint is also available as a tea, either on its own or in combination with other herbs. Menthol, the major component of peppermint oil, is used in lozenges, sprays, and other cold and cough remedies. Menthol is also available in creams and skin ointments for external use as an analgesic.

contraindications: Commission E notes that peppermint oil should not be used without a doctor's permission in individuals with obstructions of the gallbladder, gallstones, or severe liver disease. The commission states the same caution for peppermint leaf in cases of gallstones. Experts also caution against pregnant women using strong infusions of peppermint, undoubtedly because it is reputed to stimulate menstruation.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

Peppermint and menthol are reported to have caused allergic reactions in some adults and children, the latter sometimes known to suffer gagging reflexes. Doctors also warn about applying peppermint oil or products containing it to broken skin. The PDR for Herbal Medicine states that doses of menthol as low as 2 grams can be lethal, although some survive doses as high as 9 grams.

medical research: Peppermint and menthol have been the subject of a number of studies by medical researchers. Peppermint has been found in some studies to have an antiviral effect, which may explain its usefulness as a cold remedy. As noted, peppermint is also reported to act as an antispasmodic on certain smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal tract, an effect that researchers believe stems from the way it interferes with the flow of calcium into muscle cells. Other studies have shown that menthol helps to dissolve gallstones.

Herbs: Hierba del Cancer

Hierba del Cancer

scientific name: Acalypha guatemalensis Pax & Hoffman, Acalypha arvensis Poeppv & Enbdl.

other common names: Petit mouton, bonda pe, petit pompon, cat tail

growing areas: Native to Central America
physical description: An herb that grows up to 3 feet in height. The leaves are long-stemmed and oval-shaped.

traditional uses: According to Balick and Arvigo, the common name hierba del cancer stems not from the ability of the plant to fight cancer but rather because of the local use of the word cancer to mean an open sore. They report that the plant is used as a remedy in Belize for a variety of serious skin conditions such as fungus, ulcers, ringworm, and itching or burning labia in women. It is one of scores of plants used throughout Latin America as a diuretic. The leaves are used in Guatemala not only as a diuretic but also to treat kidney-related problems. In Haiti it is used to treat diarrhea, inflammations, and dyspepsia.

availability and dosage: Not available in the United States.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
medical research: In a study of plants used in Guatemala as diuretics and for the treatment of urinary ailments, extracts of hierba del cancer were shown to increase urinary output by 30 percent.
Balick and Arvigo report that studies have shown a dried leaf tincture to be active against Staphylococcus aureus but inactive against some other bacteria. They also noted that extracts of dried twigs, were found to be inactive against human colon cancer cells in vitro.

Herbs: Gumbo-limbo

Gumbo-limbo

scientific name: Bursera simaruba

other common names: Jobo, almacigo, desnudo

growing areas: Native to the Amazon area, Belize," elsewhere in Central America, and parts of tropical South America; also reported to be native to Florida

physical description: It is a tree that can grow to about 60 feet. The bark is distinctive, peeling off in thin strips. Botanist Michael Balick of the New York Botanical Garden, an expert on plants in Belize, said the tree has a fragrant yellow-green flower and a fruit that is round and tinged with red.

traditional uses: Botanists report that it is used in Belize as a treatment for dermatitis and irritations from poi-sonwood sap, mainly by immersion of the skin in a cool tea made from the bark of the tree. Balick reported that the same bark bath has been used to treat discomfort from insect bites, sunburn, measles, and other skin problems. Venezuelans are reported to use it externally as an ointment to treat rheumatism. Used internally in traditional medicine in South America, it is believed to be helpful in fighting colds, urinary tract infections, and the flu.

In Costa Rica, the plant is used as a traditional treatment for gastric cancer, with anecdotal reports that it relieves discomfort from that illness. It is one of a number of medicinal plants in that country undergoing screening to determine if it contains substances that might be useful in fighting stomach cancer.
In her study of medicinal plants of Belize, Jane Mal-lory says that the resin of Bursera simaruba is painted on boats to protect the wood from worms and insects. The wood is also used for everything from matchsticks to the construction of crates.

availability and dosage: Available as a powdered leaf. Dosages vary.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes. An extract of the bark of the tree is reported to be effective at killing snails.

medical research: Since gumbo-limbo is considered to have anti-inflammatory qualities, researchers in Venezuela tested the effects of an extract of gumbo-limbo tree bark on laboratory rats with induced swelling of the hindpaw and an arthritic knee joint. The extract caused a significant reduction in the paw swelling as well as inflammation of the arthritic knees in the test animals. The researchers speculated that the results were attributable to a suppression of the animals' immunological response in general but cautioned that further experiments were,needed.

Herbs: Guava

Guava

scientific name: Psidium guajava other common names: Guayaba, guayava, guayabo casero

growing areas: Native throughout Latin America physical description: It is a shade tree that grows to about 30 feet, has a red flaky bark, and produces a very aromatic fruit with a yellow skin and dark pink edible flesh. The inner pulp of the fruit is soft and contains many yellow seeds. traditional uses: Guava is one of a number of plants that do double duty in Hispanic communities. As a food source, it is widely consumed and used in beverages and desserts. The fruit is high in ascorbic acid. European traders spread the fruit to Asia and Africa. The tree's bark is used in the tanning of animal skins, and the wood can be used in construction. Guava has been widely used in Latin American traditional medicine as a treatment for diarrhea and stomachaches due to indigestion. Treatment usually involves drinking a decoction of the leaf, roots, and bark of the plant. It also has been used for dysentery in Panama and as an astringent in Venezuela. A decoction of the plant's bark and leaves is also reported to be used as a bath to treat skin ailments.

availability and dosage: Guava is readily available in food stores, botdnicas, and bodegas throughout Hispanic and non-Hispanic communities in the United States. Dosages vary.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
The seeds of the guava fruit have been labeled as digestion-resistant by researchers, which explains how the seeds are dispersed by animals and humans. Guava has also been shown to have the ability to lower blood sugar, but blood sugar levels that are too low can be dangerous, with the risk of disorientation, coma, and even death.

medical research: There have been a number of laboratory studies done on guava, mainly as a way of controlling noninfectious diarrhea, long a significant cause of infant mortality in developing countries. Studies have shown that extracts of dried guava leaves can slow down peristalsis (movement of food through the digestive tract), which increases absorption of fluid and electrolytes and thus reduces both diarrhea and the dehydration it can cause.

In traditional medicine, guava has also been used to lessen pain, combat insomnia, and help children suffering from convulsions, properties that sparked more scientific inquiry. Additional studies done in Malaysia, where the plant grows abundantly, showed that an extract of dried guava leaves had a narcoticlike effect on rats, something researchers attributed to flavonoids present in the plant.
Some of the flavonoids present in guava leaves are also viewed by researchers as having potential antitumor properties. A study done in Mexico used guava leaf extracts in a laboratory setting and found that it showed significant activity against certain human and mouse cancer cell lines.

Chinese and Caribbean traditional medicine have used guava in the control of diabetes, but a study in Mexico found that guava did not lower blood sugar levels in rabbits.

Herbs: Guajava

Guajava

scientific name: Cassia alata

other common names: Date, candle tree, ringworm cassia

growing areas: Widely available in the tropics; said to be native to the West Indies, as well as southern Mexico and parts of South America
physical description: It is a shrub that can grow up to 12 feet high. It has yellow flowers that grow in clusters and are said to resemble candles because of the way they stand.

traditional uses: It is used in Mexico, Venezuela, and the Dominican Republic as a diuretic. It has also been given the name ringworm cassia because a leaf extract is used to combat ringworm and is sometimes put into bathwater for that purpose, particularly in Malaysia. In Guatemala, Suriname, and Mexico it is used to relieve constipation. The leaves have been reported to treat ulcers and other skin diseases.

availability and dosage: Available as a powdered leaf. Dosages vary.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance- for medicinal purposes.
In studies done on patients suffering constipation, it has caused some diarrhea, abdominal pain, and nausea. It also has a reputation in South American traditional medicine as being able to act as an abortifacient or stimulant that could promote menstruation.

medical research: Some studies involving human subjects have pointed to beneficial effects attributed to the plant. In a clinical study done in India, extracts from Cassia alata were investigated for their effectiveness as antifungal compounds. In a test on patients with confirmed cases of a fungus infection on the skin known as Pityriasis versicolor, a fresh extract from the leaves of Cassia alata was applied to infected areas one time and washed off the next morning. The study found that the infected areas began to clear up in three weeks and led to what the researchers believe was a cure for up to a year, after which a relapse occurred. The findings, along with the lack of any side effects, led to the conclusion that Cassia alata is an effective, reliable, and safe herbal medicine for treating this particular skin ailment.

However, a Malaysian study found that an extract of Cassia alata had no effect in the laboratory on a number of microorganisms, including bacteria and yeast, that cause skin diseases in humans. The extract did have some effect on fungus growth, but researchers could not say with certainty how it occurred.
A study of hospital patients in Bangkok suffering from constipation was reported to have determined that an extract of Cassia alata was an effective laxative, providing relief, often within twenty-four hours, with a return of bowel movements in over 86 percent of the patients. The researchers attributed the laxative effect to the substance in the plant known as anthraquinones. However, it was also noted that a number of the patients complained of side effects, including diarrhea, abdominal pain, and nausea.

Cassia alata has been reputed in folklore to act as an abortifacient or promote menstruation. But in tests done on female laboratory rats in Brazil, Cassia alata did not show such traits.

Herbs: Graviola

Graviola

scientific name: Annona muricata

other common names: Guanabana, guanavana, gua-naba, anona de broquel

growing areas: Said to be native to the West Indies; has spread from southern Mexico to Brazil

physical description: It is a tall, slender tree that grows to a height of about 24 feet. The leaves, which stay evergreen in tropical areas, are dark green and glossy. When crushed, the leaves give off a strong odor. The fruit is described as heart-shaped with a green skin that is covered with spines. The inner flesh of the fruit is juicy and aromatic and has numerous black seeds, according to Julia Morton.
traditional uses: Graviola is a plant that has many medicinal uses in folk traditions but has to be used cautiously, as noted below in the discussion of special precautions. In Panama and Venezuela it is reported to be used to treat diarrhea, while Mexicans use it for fever and dysentery and as an astringent. Researchers also note that it is used to combat a number of gastrointestinal ailments in Puerto Rico, where it is used as an antispasmodic, anti-diarrheal, and stomachic. Julia Morton reported that graviola is a popular bush tea in the Caribbean and Bahamas, where it is sweetened and consumed by children and adults. It is also in the Caribbean that graviola is used to treat colds and fever, according to Morton.

availability and dosage: Available in powdered leaf form. Dosages vary. Herbalists recommend that a half cup of the leaf infusion be taken one to three times daily.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

Though it is widely used in the Caribbean and in parts of Latin America, Annona muricata is considered by some doctors and researchers to be a potentially toxic plant. Its seeds are reported to be toxic and have been used as an insecticide and fish poison. In fact, parts of the fruit and a decoction from the leaves are reported to be used as a vermifuge in the Caribbean. Perhaps more troubling are results of tests showing that leaf extracts from the plant injected into rats produced fibrosarcomas in one-third of the animals at the point of injection, something researchers attributed to the high tannin content of the extract.

medical research: Annona muricata was one of twelve medicinal plants tested by researchers in Brazil examining the analgesic effects of popular folk remedies. The researcher administered extracts from the plants to the animals and tested their reaction to stimulus. They found that Annona muricata was virtually inactive as an analgesic but that all of the animals receiving it died within twenty-four hours.

Herbs: Ginger

Ginger

scientific name: Zingiber officinale

other common names: Gengibre, gingembre

growing areas: China, Jamaica, southwestern parts of
the United States, Hawaii physical description: Ginger is a perennial plant that produces a thin stem about 3 feet long, with leaves that are thin and pointed. It produces a purple flower that looks like an orchid. Its thick rhizome is the most important part of the plant.

traditional uses: Ginger has been recognized as an important plant in Chinese medicine for centuries and is mentioned in two-thousand-year-old medical books. It was valued for its medicinal and culinary uses, serving as both a seasickness remedy for sailors and a pungent-tasting condiment. The ability of ginger to act as an antiemetic, a substance that relieves stomach upset, has been a key to its use by humans over the centuries. It is also used to treat diarrhea, nausea, and arthritis, and as an appetite stimulant. It is widely used in Jamaica, Mexico, and India for medicinal and other purposes, including as a spice and in beverages and candies. availability and dosage: Ginger is widely available in the United States as a liquid extract, powder, tablets, and capsules. Gingerroot and ginger tea can also be obtained in food stores. Dosages vary, and some herbalists maintain that a 12-ounce glass of ginger ale, assuming it is made from real ginger, will have the same remedial effect on motion sickness that a 1,200-milligram dose of powder has.

contraindications: Some experts recommend that it not be used, except under medical supervision, by people who are receiving anticoagulants. They also caution against pregnant women using ginger.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
In their professional handbook on alternative and complementary medicine, Juan R. Avila and Charles W. Fetrow, both pharmacists, say there is no consensus on what the proper dosage is for ginger. They also advise pregnant women not to use it.

medical research: A great deal of the research into ginger and its medicinal properties has focused on its antiemetic and antinausea effects. According to a study published in the British medical journal Lancet, ginger seemed to be more effective than some standard drugs in treating motion sickness and dizziness. According to the Lancet results, volunteers who took ginger were able to endure artificially created seasickness (from a mechanical rocking chair) 57 percent longer than those who used Dramamine.

Ginger is also seen as being useful for controlling and relieving the nausea that can result from cancer chemotherapy. Researchers in India in 1997 tested the ability of ginger extract to alleviate the gastrointestinal distress associated with chemotherapy. The researchers fed laboratory rats an extract of ginger in varying doses before giving the animals cisplatin, an anticancer chemical. The test results showed that ginger was able to increase the rate at which the rats' stomachs emptied, leading the researchers to conclude that ginger may relieve the abdominal symptoms associated with chemotherapy.

Additional studies using acetone extracts of ginger in laboratory rats showed that two constituents of the plant, known collectively as gingerol, were responsible for increased bile production in the animals. This indicated that extracts of gingerroot can play an important role in digestion and food absorption.

Herbs: Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus

scientific name: Eucalyptus globulus

other common names: Australian fever tree, euca-lypto, eucalypt

growing areas: Native to Australia; also grows in the Mediterranean area and South America

physical description: It is a fast-growing tree that can reach 400 feet in some areas.

traditional uses: When the eucalyptus tree was first planted in the Mediterranean, it gained a reputation as an antimalarial plant—primarily, it seems, because it absorbed a great deal of water through its roots and effectively dried up swamps and waterways where mosquitoes bred. The oil of the leaves, which has a distinctive aroma similar to camphor, has been used in many cultures to treat colds, flu, bronchitis, and catarrh, mainly because of the way it can open up bronchial tubes and relieve congestion. It is considered to be an expectorant and weak antispasmodic, for which it has been reported to be used in Turkey. It is widely used in South America to treat respiratory infections and as a rubefacient, a substance that increases blood flow to the skin. Some herbalists say it is also an effective treatment for small cuts on the skin. Others report that a piece of cloth soaked in the oil can repel cockroaches.

Commission E has labeled eucalyptus as an expectorant, secretomotory, and mild antispasmodic. It is used in small amounts in over-the-counter cold and cough remedies.

availability and dosage: Available in botdnicas in the form of dried leaves and also as a volatile oil prepared from the leaves through a distillation process. Some herbalists recommend boiling a few leaves or a few drops of essential oil in water as an inhalant. For minor cuts, a drop or two of essential oil rubbed on the affected area is sometimes recommended by herbalists.

contraindications: Women who are pregnant or breast-feeding, as well as anyone suffering from low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). Commission E says it is contraindicated for persons suffering from inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and bile ducts, as well as severe liver disease.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

Despite the fact that it is widely used to treat respiratory infections and catarrh, eucalyptus has to be treated with care. If taken internally, eucalyptus oil can cause nausea and vomiting and can even be fatal. It may on occasion cause skin irritation. Researchers have also noted that essential oil from eucalyptus can be a powerful convulsant and may prompt seizures. Commission E recommends that it not be used on the faces of babies and young children, probably because it might be ingested. Commission E also says eucalyptus stimulates the enzyme system of the liver involved in the detoxification process and as a result can weaken or alter the effects of other drugs.

medical research: Tests done in Guatemala of a number of plants used for the treatment of respiratory ailments examined their antibacterial activity on commercially prepared strains of bacteria, including those that cause pneumonia and staphylococcus infections. The test results showed that extracts of Eucalyptus globulus were among the plants shown to be highly active against the bacteria during the in vitro tests. However, further tests on humans were needed to examine the properties of the extract, according to the researchers.

Herbs: Espinheira Santa

Espinheira Santa

scientific name: Maytenus ilicifolia other common names: Cancrosa growing areas: Native to Brazil; grows throughout South America

physical description: It is a small evergreen tree, resembling holly, that grows to a height of about 15 feet. Its leaves are oval-shaped and serrated.

traditional uses: Leaves of the tree are popular as a medicine for the treatment of ulcers, dyspepsia, and other stomach problems in Brazil, where it is also reputed to be a good antacid. The Journal of Ethnopharma-cology reports that leaves of the tree are also often used to make a tea, known as abafado. It is also used as a traditional contraceptive in Paraguay.

availability and dosage: Available as a leaf powder or as cut-and-sifted bark. Dosages vary. Herbalists also recommend a half cup of a boiled extract two or three times a day.

contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
Though tests on animals for toxicity showed no adverse effects, the plant did act as a significant sedative and might, if used by humans in significant amounts, accentuate the effect of other drugs that can cause drowsiness, such as antihistamines.

medical research: A number of tests have been done in Brazil on laboratory animals to test the anti-ulcer effects of the plant, as well as its possible toxicity, with what appear to be encouraging results. One test, using rats who were given a chemical to induce a gastric ulcer, showed that a water extract of dried Maytenus leaves increased the pH of the gastric juices of the animals, thus making the stomachs less acidic and better able to resist tissue damage. These results thus confirm the popular use of this plant. Another study in rats and mice found that different doses, including some that were four hundred times those used by humans, did not appear to have any toxic effect on the mice, nor did the plant impact the animals' fertility. High doses of the plant preparation did act as a sedative when given by injection. However, the overall results led researchers to conclude that Maytenus may be a safe plant for human use and deserving of further investigation.

But not so promising have been tests performed on cancer patients in the United States of the compounds, maytansine and mayteine that are found in the plant. While there was some effect seen on ovarian cancer and some lymphomas with maytansine, the substance was deemed toxic at the higher doses that were needed to be used, according to a report in a medical journal.

Herbs: Erva Tostao

ErvaTostao

scientific name: Boerhaavia hirsuta

other common names: Pigweed, hog weed, pega-pinto

growing areas: Wide growing area stretching from the West Indies, Argentina, and Mexico to Central America

physical description: This perennial ground weed that proliferates throughout the tropics has a starchy, thick tap root. Its flowers are pink, and the seeds are coated with gummy hairs that tend to cling to people, birds, and animals, said Morton. traditional uses: In Latin America, it has served a number of uses, including as a treatment for asthma, as an expectorant, and as a diuretic. It is also reported to be used in Brazil as a cholagogue and as a treatment r gallstones. Researchers also report that a decoction adVfrom the root has been used to halt uterine bleeding. For liver problems, a plaster made from powdered leaves has been placed over the area beneath which the organ lies.

In the Ayurvedic tradition of Indian folk medicine, erva tostao has been used as a diuretic and as a treatment for edema.

availability and dosage: It is available as a leaf powder. Dosages vary.
contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.
High doses are said to cause vomiting.

medical research: Researchers in India have tested erva tostao's use as a diuretic and anti-inflammatory. The researchers chemically induced swelling in the paws of rats and measured the reduction after an extract of the plant was given to the animals. They found a significant reduction in swelling after the extract was administered. The study also measured urine output from the animals after the extract was given and found increases in urine output.

The Indian research also found that the plant had maximal effect when the extract was taken from the roots and leaves rather than the stems. It was also determined that the time of the harvesting of the plants had an impact on the plant's medicinal effects, with maximal effectiveness if harvested during the rainy season.

Herbs: Embauba

Embauba

scientific name: Cecropia peltata other common names: Trumpet tree, trompette, imbauha growing areas: West Indies, Mexico, Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, Yucatan, Costa Rica, Honduras, Colombia, and Suriname; also grown as an ornamental plant in Florida

physical description: This fast-growing tree can reach up to 65 feet in height. It produces a sap described as a watery or gummy latex. Its leaves have hairy stems. The flowers develop into a spike, which in turn develops into a fleshy fruit that is soft and Sweet when ripe.

traditional uses: Cubans use the leaf as a tea for asthma and the latex as an astringent as well as a treatment for calluses and ulcers. In Guatemala, a decoction is used as a diuretic and a remedy for whooping cough. In Argentina, it has been reportedly used for Parkinson's disease. It has a wide reputation in the Caribbean as a treatment for asthma.

availability and dosage: Available as powdered leaf. Dosages vary. Herbalists recommend a half cup of the leaf infusion up to two times a day.

contraindications: Patients with heart conditions should not take embauba.
special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

It has been used to treat diabetes in Barbados. But there is a risk that blood sugar will drop too low, possibly leading to diabetic coma.

medical research: A study in Cuba of an embauba extract showed that it had the ability to inhibit the growth of fungus.

Herbs: Dragon's Blood

Dragon's Blood

scientific name: Croton lechleri

other common names: Sangre de draco, sangre de drago, sangre de grado

growing areas: Peru, Ecuador, and Brazil

physical description: The tree has heart-shaped, lime-colored leaves. The tree produces a red sap, hence the name dragon's blood.

traditional uses: Peruvian Indians would extract the red sap from the tree and use it as an astringent to help heal wounds and also as a vaginal bath before childbirth. It has been used as a traditional medicine in Latin America for inflammation, cancer, and infections. The harm that can befall the tree from the harvesting of the sap has raised concern from botanists and conservationists.
availability and dosage: Available in liquid resin form, as cut-and-sifted bark, and as an extract. Dosages vary.
contraindications: None noted.

special precautions: Consult your physician before beginning any use of an ethnobotanical substance for medicinal purposes.

Researchers have cautioned against internal use of extracts of dragon's blood that have a high level of taspine, an alkaloid. Taspine levels can vary, depending upon the country of origin of the plant, with sap obtained from Ecuador having very little taspine but Peruvian sap having greater amounts.

medical research: Some studies have found that the taspine, found in the red sap of dragon's blood, appears to accelerate the healing of wounds. But later research at the University of London School of Pharmacy has cast doubt on taspine's wound-healing power, suggesting instead that substances known as polyphenols may be responsible.

The same British study also examined the ability of dragon's blood to kill certain human cancer cells and bacteria. In laboratory tests on samples of human oral cancer cells, dragon's blood sap proved toxic to those cells. In addition, other components in the sap were believed to be valuable in killing off bacteria, making dragon's blood useful as an anti-infective.

A San Francisco-based firm, Shaman Pharmaceuticals, filed a patent for a dragon's-blood-based drug called Provir, based on early tests showing that 89 percent of 75 people afflicted with acute diarrhea experienced a return to normal bowel function after taking the drug. Data indicated that Provir acted by inhibiting the secretion of chloride ions from the lining of the small intestine, which tends to lead to an accumulation of fluid in that organ. This allowed Provir to treat so-called watery diarrhea, often an affliction of AIDS patients. In 1998 it was announced that trials had shown that AIDS patients who used Provir showed a significant reduction in bowel miovements associated with diarrhea. In 1999 Shaman began marketing a similar product under the label SB-Normal Stool Formula as a dietary supplement.

In 1997, tests of Virend, a topical antiviral agent that Shaman derived from dragon's blood, showed that the drug reduced genital herpes lesions in AIDS patients. It appeared that Virend binds to the herpes virus and prevents it from binding to the cells of the host person, the company said. Further tests were planned.